Sunday, December 8th,
2019
Blog #5 of my learning from #TheChicagoManualOfStyle.
Last Sunday, I covered nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. Today, the topics are:
- The rest of the parts of speech
- Adverbs
- Prepositions
- Conjunctions
- interjections
- Types of sentences
- Sentence patterns and structure
- Clauses and negation
- Expletives
- Negation
- Parallel structure
- Word usage – the right and the wrong way
- Removing Bias from Writing
Parts of Speech (Remaining from the Previous Blog)
Adverbs
A word that can’t stand on its own but exists only to describe an action/verb. Constantly. Very. Right. More. Most. Rather. Too.
A sentence adverb modifies an entire sentence. Fortunately, it didn’t rain during our hike. Simple and flat adverbs take the ly suffix. While Phrasal adverbs such as “in the meantime” contain more words than one.
Degrees of adverbs
Positive adverbs: Express a quality. Merrily.
Comparative adverbs: They compare. Better. Less painfully. Sooner.
Certain adverbs don’t follow the normal comparative rules. Example: little,
less, least. Certain adverbs are noncomparable. Ex: Uniquely. Then. On. First.
Finally.
Superlative adverbs: Most. Best. Least.
Placement of adverbs
Place an adverb near the verb it modifies (best following the intransitive verb—“perched precariously on a thin branch”) but can occasionally precedes as “seldom happy with me” (TCMOS, 5.169). Sometimes, adverbs (adjective clusters) modify words that aren’t verbs. Partly over. Very short. Too long. Only when.
Note the difference between “I feel bad” (I feel unwell) versus “I feel badly” (I feel badly about something missing in this sentence).
When modifying a verb phrase, place the adverb between the auxiliary and principal verbs. The island was brutally damaged by the hurricane. When placed improperly, adverbs modify the wrong word and alter the intent of the sentence.
Prepositions
A word that can’t change form, linking parts of a sentence to the noun. About. Below. On. Under. From. Of. Out of. On which. Just like other parts of speech, prepositions can be simple or compound. Phrasal or participial (regarding, respecting). In the sections above, I am covering their proper usage.
Tip #1: If one preposition serves the same function of a phrasal preposition, go with the single preposition. Economics.
Tip #2: Place the preposition as close as possible to the word it modifies.
Tip #3: Although some may object to ending a sentence in a preposition, calling it informal, it’s okay to do so for a more natural flow. If you remove all prepositions from the end, dialogues will become formal and unnatural. So, be careful with rules and tips.
Tip # 4: When the same preposition appears consecutively (to give in in every argument), change the order of words. Avoid this situation.
Tip #5: “Like” is not equal to “as”.
“Like” governs nouns (or pronouns). “Like Romeo and Juliet”. Not like this sentence => “like she said it would happen.” Consider using conjunctions as and as if although spoken language is changing.
Tip #6: Place “only” carefully because it can function as an adverb, an adjective, or a conjunction, capable of modifying a part of speech instead of one word. It only modifies the part immediately following it and misplacing it will inevitably alter the meaning of the sentence.
Tip #7: Avoid “upon.” Go with “on”.
Tip #8: Limit the use of prepositions! Don’t have over one preposition for every ten words. Here are five ways to chop prepositions from your manuscript.
1. Convert passive voice to active.
2. Convert prepositional phrases with genitives => complexity of the exam vs the exam’s complexity.
3. Convert prepositional phrases with adverbs => spoke with caution vs spoke cautiously.
4. Cut unnecessary prepositional phrases => Omit the zombie nouns that end with -ance, -ence, -ity, -ment, -sion, or -tion. How? Her performance was graceful => She performed gracefully.
5. Cut prepositional phrases => (TCMOS, 5.187) “ingredient in this recipe” => cut “in this recipe.” It’s understood.
Some examples of proper usage of preposition with words:
- Becoming of (an office or position). I have a chapter named “Becoming of Queen Elizabeth.” That fits. But if my chapter was on a random person called Adam Jones, it would be “Becoming Adam Jones.” Note: no preposition in the second example. Of precedes a position.
- Differ from [a thing/quality]; with [a person]; about, over, on [an issue].
- Preferable to [not than], over [an alternative].
Conjunctions
A word that connects; Can be simple (and, but, if, or, though) or compound (although, because, nevertheless, unless . . .), coordinating (joining equal ranked clauses; take commas), correlative (used in pairs), or subordinating (joining unequal clauses; typically take no commas).
Despite the taboo, 10% of sentences begin with a preposition. Be careful with “but” for sentences not in opposition. “But” is stronger than “however”.
Interjections
A strong feeling. Ugh. Ouch. Never again! Hey. Well. Interjections are grammatically independent from the rest of the sentence. Psst.
Syntax
The arrangement of words as flowers in a bouquet is a syntax. Statements have subject preceding a verb unless asking a question, Basic? Not so fast. Consider the following sentence types:
Simple: Single independent clause. I love warm snuggles.
Compound: Two independent clauses. I love warm snuggles most days, but some days I want to be left alone.
Complex: Single independent clause and one or more dependent clause. Pay attention to your punctuation and modifiers in these.
Compound-complex: Multiples independent and dependent clauses.
Here are acceptable word orders in English. S = subject, V = verb, O = object, IO = indirect object, C = complement, and A = adjective.
SVO, SVC, SVA, SVIOO, SVOC, SVOA.
Negation
A negative statement. None. No. not. No one. Nothing. Don’t. Hardly. “Not” usually follows the principal verb or auxiliary but can negate any element of a sentence. It’s place changes the meaning.
I definitely did not love the new car. (certain of not loving the new car)
I did not definitely love the new car. (uncertain that I love the car)
Unlike “not,” “no” negates adjectives and nouns. Avoid using with adjectives as it can muddle the meaning. Using pronouns to negate like nobody, nothing can help with economics of words and sentence flow. You never listen! vs You do not ever listen.
Expletives
A word with no lexical meaning but there to provide structure. “It is” “There” An expletive shifts the emphasis to the predicate containing the true subject.
It is true that I used to be afraid of the dark.
This statement tells us the truth about what I used to be afraid about. Instead of I used to be afraid of the dark, it shifts the emphasis to “truth.”
That brings me to “it.”
When to use “it” and when to omit it? Unless it performs the function of an antecedent or is the subject of a “be-verb,” omit “it” as it adds no value to the sentence.
It is best to stay indoors after dark => Stay indoors after dark.
There: Don’t confuse expletive “there” with the adverb “there.” (TCMOS, 5.241) “There seemed to be someone” vs “Someone seemed to be there.”
Parallel Structure
Series of like clauses, comma separate must have same word order (SVO . . .)
Poor: I visited the local churches, the native eateries, and took a guided tour of ancient ruins.
Better: I visited the local churches, the native eateries, and the ancient ruins, where I took a guided tour.
Don’t repeat the preposition in each element when same for each coordinate, but insert it if each element takes a different preposition.
Works: We won the races at London, Germany, and Arica. [instead of at London, at Germany, and at Africa.]
Works: We went room-to-room, searching for him in the closet, under the table, behind the curtain, and inside the attic.
Ensure to place the preposition next to the verb it modifies else you risk lack of clarity and ensure the auxiliary verb is outside of all the coordinating clauses.
Word Usage
Of: Avoid of. Use “all” instead of “all of”. Use “out” instead of “out of”. Use “off” instead of “off of”. Similarly, try and remove “of“ with “half.” Half the people. Avoid “of” after “inside” and “outside” too.
All right: Use two words (instead of nonstandard alright.)
All together: Altogether means “entirely”. All together refers to time and place like a reunion. We will be all together during Thanksgiving.
Alongside: Do not use “of” next to alongside as it means “at the side of” by itself.
A lot: Two words, not one.
Anyone / any one: “Anyone” is singular and refers to no one in particular. “Any one” is more emphatic and refers to a single entity. I haven’t read any one of those books. Has anyone? (same concept for everyone and every one)
Avoid the words “based on” and “basis” which an adverb can substitute. Say “daily” instead of “daily basis.”
Chord / cord:Musical instruments have chords. But if denoting a rope as in vocal, umbilical, spinal, or even pertaining to the heart, it’s a cord, not a chord.
Use word two instead of a couple.
Deadly / Deathly: First word means capable of great harm, and second means arousing the thoughts of death.
Disinterested is not the same as uninterested (which means unconcerned) but use it to signify no financial stake.
Each other / one another: Two? Use each other. Over two? Use one another.
Enumerable / Innumerable: Enumerable = countable list like agenda items. Innumerable = can’t count like the stars.
Every day = adverb. Everyday = adjective.
If / Whether: Use of “whether” presents alternatives. Use “whether” to introduce a clause or clarify meaning. Ex: I asked if I looked fat. This implies whenever I looked fat, I asked. “I asked whether I looked fat” makes more sense. “Whether” in an imperative statement can imply regardless while “if” limits to the condition. Tell me if I look fat. (say nothing if I don’t.)
Lay / lie: “Lay” verb needs an object and means to make horizontal. Lay your guns down. Laid to rest. Lay-laid-laid are the inflections. Lie is an intransitive verb. Lie-lay-lain. Lie down. (TCMOS didn’t discuss lie that means to not speak the truth. Lie-lied-lied.)
Led / Lead: Led is the correct past tense of lead.
Much / Very: Use both scarcely but when you do, use “much” with past-participial adjectives (much obliged) and “very” with adverbs (very carefully).
Palette / Palate: An artist has a palette to mix colors while my tongue has a diverse palate.
Sneak: Sneak-sneaked-sneaked (and not snuck.)
That / which: “That” is used to narrow a category. To use “which” restrictively, precede with a preposition (in which). Nonrestrictively, “which” precedes by a comma.
American English prefers toward, afterward, downward, upward, backward without an s. Some editors prefer this version for consistency.
Removing Bias
Maintain credibility by consciously removing bias such as sexism or other stereotypes unless written to make a point. Here are ways to remove bias from writing according to TCMOS:
1. Omit the pronoun – Remove “he” “she” (by changing sentence structure).
2. Repeat the noun for the pronoun.
3. Use plural antecedent – Students must study diligently.
4. Use an article instead of pronouns – An accused must waive his right to . . . => An accused must waive the right to . . .
5. Use neutral singular pronouns like “one”.
6. Use a relative pronoun “who”.
7. Use imperative mood–A parent must care for the wellbeing of her children => Care for the wellbeing of children.
8. Use “he” “she” in moderation.
9. Revise the sentence to arrange the words to remove bias.
Don’t make it so obvious that you are removing a bias that you risk sounding wooden or unnatural. Ex: replace a chairperson with a chair. Newly coined words such as a police officer instead of a policeman, a firefighter instead of a fireman, a mail carrier instead of a mailman are noteworthy.
What about other biases? Judgements the world is littered with. “Emphasize the person, not characteristic (label),” says TCMOS. A Catholic woman = label. A deaf-mute boy = label. Instead, say: She is Catholic, or the child is deaf and mute.
When irrelevant, avoid mentions of sex, race, ethnicity, disability, age, religion, sexual orientation, transgender status, or social standing. It’s no taboo to write about these topics. Not one bit. But if that is not the topic, don’t distract from your message by invoking your or your reader’s biases. Because lets face it, we all have them.
My Takeaway
I’m happy to close on chapter 5 in two blogs. I learned a lot, and I don’t have an elevator pitch except one. I will now know how to use this chapter as a reference effectively. I pen down with the pleasure of learning.
Source: The Chicago Manual of Style, SEVENTEEN EDITION.
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This series reminds me of how much I LOVE grammar #grammarnerd